# The Late Bronze Age collapse > Between about 1225 and 1150 BC the palace states of the eastern Mediterranean failed one after another: the Hittite capital Hattusa was abandoned, Ugarit… Source: https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse Publisher: Mysteries Department Licence: CC BY 4.0 (credit Mysteries Department and link the page) Updated: 2026-10-27T17:47:10+00:00 --- **MYS** 0D464EDY48B2·Mystery · event # The Late Bronze Age collapse **0** [Follow][Ask a question](https://mysteriesdept.com/questions/key-questions?mystery=bronze-age-collapse) The Late Bronze Age collapse ![Carte de la Mer Mediterranée en trois feuilles....](https://mysteriesdept.com/media/folio/bronze-age-collapse-lead) Arnaud Groignard · Public domain When Mid-13th to 12th century BC; most destructions about 1200–1150 BC⁠[[3]] Who fell Hittite empire, Ugarit, Mycenaean palace states; Egypt survived much weakened⁠[[1]] Northern Levant destructions 1192–1190 BC (radiocarbon, Gibala-Tell Tweini)⁠[[4]] Anatolian drought Three consecutive dry years about 1198–1196 (±3) BC in the Gordion tree rings⁠[[7]] Regional climate About 300 years of drier, cooler conditions from about 3200 years ago⁠[[13]] Egyptian account Ramesses III, Year 8: the Peleset, Theker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh⁠[[2]] Migration European-related ancestry in early Iron Age Ashkelon, gone in later generations⁠[[8]] Status Partly explained Questions 0 of 6 answered People [**Ramesses III** Pharaoh of Egypt's 20th Dynasty; recorded the Sea Peoples battles at Medinet Habu](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/people/FIG0D464HKG574H/ramesses-iii)[**Eric H. Cline** Archaeologist, George Washington University; author of 1177 B.C.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/people/FIG0D464J3433PS/eric-h-cline)[**Sturt W. Manning** Archaeologist and dendrochronologist, Cornell Tree-Ring Laboratory; led the Gordion drought study](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/people/FIG0D464HVA6FJ9/sturt-w-manning)[**Suppiluliuma II** Last recorded Great King of the Hittites; reigned from about 1207 BC](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/people/FIG0D464HBP6Z20/suppiluliuma-ii) Catalog key**MYS** 0D464EDY48B2 In the 13th century BC the eastern Mediterranean was a connected world of great kingdoms: Egypt, the Hittites in Anatolia, Assyria and Babylonia, the trading city of Ugarit, Cyprus, and the Mycenaean palaces of Greece, linked by diplomacy, royal marriage and a long-distance trade in copper, tin, grain and luxury goods⁠[[1]]. Within a few generations around 1200 BC most of this system was gone. Hattusa was abandoned, Ugarit was destroyed and never resettled, the Mycenaean palaces burned and Linear B writing ceased, and Egypt under Ramesses III recorded a great battle against a confederation of seaborne peoples⁠[[1]]⁠[[2]]. The explanations have accumulated for a century: invasion by the "Sea Peoples", earthquakes, drought and famine, internal revolt, the failure of trade, and "systems collapse" in which several stresses compounded in tightly linked states⁠[[3]]. The evidence has changed in the last fifteen years. Radiocarbon sequences now fix destruction horizons to within a few years in places⁠[[4]]; pollen cores from Cyprus, coastal Syria and the Sea of Galilee show a long dry phase⁠[[5]]⁠[[6]]; and juniper timbers from Gordion give an annually resolved moisture record across the collapse, with an exceptional three-year drought at about 1198–1196 BC⁠[[7]]. Climate is now part of every account, but how much it explains is still argued. The low-frequency drying lasted centuries and societies are adapted to single bad years; the Gordion authors argue that what breaks such systems is several failed harvests in a row⁠[[7]]. Critics warn that the destructions spread over a century and do not line up neatly with any one event, and that precise climate dates can lend false precision to complex histories⁠[[3]]. Ancient DNA from Ashkelon shows a migration at the transition, but not whether migrants were a cause or a consequence⁠[[8]]. Of the 6 questions on this site, 0 are answered. The most likely answer to “Were the Sea Peoples a cause of the collapse or a consequence of it?”, not yet confirmed: populations displaced by famine and the failure of their own states, moving with their families. ### Key questionsset by the editors [**Were the Sea Peoples a cause of the collapse or a consequence of it?** ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464NGG66KP/were-the-sea-peoples-a-cause-of-the-collapse-or-a)Most likely: populations displaced by famine and the failure of their own states, moving with their families [**What was the principal cause of the end of the Late Bronze Age palace system in the eastern Mediterranean?** ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464MS26SDY/what-was-the-principal-cause-of-the-end-of-the-late-bronze)Most likely: no single cause; several stresses (climate, famine, migration, war, earthquakes, internal unrest) struck… [**Why was Hattusa abandoned?** ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464N8P0FCE/why-was-hattusa-abandoned)Most likely: the court moved away for political reasons, leaving the capital to decline [All 6 questions ](https://mysteriesdept.com/questions/key-questions?mystery=bronze-age-collapse) ## What happened The collapse was a sequence, not a single day. Knapp and Manning place the changes between the mid to late 13th century and the 12th century BC, at different times in different regions⁠[[3]]. In Anatolia the last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II, began his reign about 1207 BC; after him no ruler is recorded, and Hattusa, long thought sacked, now appears to have been emptied by its own administration and burned later⁠[[7]]. On the Syrian coast, the terminal destruction at Gibala-Tell Tweini, a dependency of Ugarit, is radiocarbon-dated to 1192–1190 BC⁠[[4]], and the first burning of Gibala is contemporary with the destruction of Ugarit itself⁠[[9]]. In Greece the palace of Nestor at Pylos was destroyed at the transition from Late Helladic IIIB to IIIC, about 3150–3130 years BP⁠[[10]]. [![Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor, Pylos](https://mysteriesdept.com/files/v/097b7c21e58a2a51b2642927062d4bf0cec91be5c8f0ed7adb5f944bb3145c79/w800)](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4657JM2S4R/linear-b-tablets-from-the-palace-of-nestor-pylos) Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor, PylosZde. CC BY-SA 4.0[Artifact ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4657JM2S4R/linear-b-tablets-from-the-palace-of-nestor-pylos) Egypt survived. In his eighth year Ramesses III recorded that the foreign countries "made a conspiracy in their isles", that "no land could stand before their arms, from Hatti, Kode, Carchemish, Yereth, and Yeres on", and that their confederation of Peleset, Theker, Shekelesh, Denyen and Weshesh was defeated on land and at sea⁠[[2]]. Depending on the Egyptian chronology used, that year falls about 1188 or 1177 BC⁠[[7]]. **Map of the country** [Open the full map](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/map) [+][−] 1 **Hattusa (Boğazkale)** City Within 1 km 2 **Gordion, with the Midas Mound tumulus** Archaeological site Within 1 km 3 **Ugarit (Ras Shamra)** City Within 1 km 4 **Gibala-Tell Tweini** Archaeological site Within 100 m 5 **Larnaca Salt Lake, Cyprus** Lake Within 10 km 6 **Eastern Mediterranean** Region A region 7 **Sea of Galilee** Lake Within 10 km 8 **Soreq Cave** Cave Within 100 m 9 **Ashkelon** City Within 1 km 10 **Palace of Nestor, Pylos** Palace Within 1 km 11 **Medinet Habu, mortuary temple of Ramesses III, Thebes** Temple Within 1 km MappedWithin 1 kmA regionNatural Earth ### Timeline **Timeline** Squeezed where little happened. Each mark is a published claim, by how it stands:AcceptedMost likelyStill possibleDisputedRuled out ## The accounts The contemporary written record is royal and fragmentary. The Medinet Habu inscriptions and reliefs give the Egyptian view of the invaders, with their names, dress and ships, and the claim that the Hittites and others had already fallen⁠[[2]]⁠[[11]]. From Ugarit come letters of its last years, including appeals and reports of enemy ships on the coast, and from Hittite and other archives letters about grain shipments and shortages in Hittite lands in the 13th century⁠[[1]]⁠[[7]]. The Gordion authors note that these texts lack detail and context, and that some studies of 13th-century Hattusa do not read them as signs of impending crisis⁠[[7]]. The Hittite archives themselves are searchable through the Hethitologie-Portal Mainz⁠[[12]]. [![The Year 8 inscription and Sea Peoples reliefs of Ramesses III](https://mysteriesdept.com/files/v/a885426a1ba64e3eda6272eabcb037282d6d7536bc0f549772ed331020c6a239/w800)](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4656V62KTW/the-year-8-inscription-and-sea-peoples-reliefs-of-ramesses) The Year 8 inscription and Sea Peoples reliefs of Ramesses IIIOltau, 1177. CC BY-SA 4.0[Artifact ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4656V62KTW/the-year-8-inscription-and-sea-peoples-reliefs-of-ramesses) The records stop when the palaces stop. Linear B in Greece and Hittite cuneiform in Anatolia end with the administrations that wrote them, so the decades after the fall are known mainly from archaeology⁠[[1]]. ## What was recorded The physical record has three parts. The first is the destruction horizons: burned levels at palaces and cities from Greece to the Levant, some now dated by radiocarbon to within a few years⁠[[4]]⁠[[3]]. The second is the climate archives. Pollen from the Larnaca Salt Lake in Cyprus and from Gibala shows drying from the late 13th or early 12th century BC⁠[[5]]⁠[[9]]; a quantitative reconstruction for coastal Syria gives a 300-year dry and cool period beginning about 3200 years ago with winter rain down about 40%⁠[[13]]; the Sea of Galilee core shows the driest episode of the Bronze and Iron Ages at about 1250–1100 BCE⁠[[6]]; and Soreq Cave isotopes provide a long regional reference⁠[[14]]. An early synthesis of Mediterranean sea-surface temperatures, speleothems and pollen argued that cooler seas reduced rainfall over the Aegean and Levant at the same time⁠[[15]]. Not every local record fits: a stalagmite near Pylos shows generally wetter conditions at the time the palace burned, with a short dry spell about 3200 BP and drying afterwards⁠[[10]]. [![The terminal destruction layer at Gibala-Tell Tweini](https://mysteriesdept.com/files/v/d56268fe462f22ef89dd75345981fd7ed906884100eda06a7038fb10385fa05a/w800)](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D46591G2AQY/the-terminal-destruction-layer-at-gibala-tell-tweini) The terminal destruction layer at Gibala-Tell TweiniKaniewski et al., 1192. CC BY (PLOS ONE's Creative Commons Attribution licence, 2011)[Artifact ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D46591G2AQY/the-terminal-destruction-layer-at-gibala-tell-tweini) The third is the Gordion tree-ring chronology, the only annually resolved record from the Hittite heartland. Built from 23 juniper samples of about 18 trees and fixed in time by radiocarbon wiggle-matching, it runs from about 1775 to 748 BC⁠[[7]]⁠[[16]]. Ring widths and δ13C both mark about 1198–1196 (±3) BC as an unusually severe run of consecutive dry years⁠[[7]]. A 2026 re-reading of the same data counts fifteen significant droughts across the last century of the kingdom⁠[[17]]. Finally, genomes from Ashkelon show that the early Iron Age population there carried European-related ancestry absent before and diluted after⁠[[8]]. ## The explanations Drought and famine. The climate reading holds that a long drying, punctuated by extreme multi-year droughts, cut harvests below what storage and trade could buffer, so that famine, unrest and movement followed⁠[[5]]⁠[[7]]⁠[[13]]. It is supported by the coincidence of the dry phase with the collapse in several records and by the Gordion drought falling in the years before the end of Hattusa⁠[[6]]⁠[[7]]. Its weaknesses are that the destructions spread over decades, that some local records show no drought at the moment of destruction, and that a climate stress explains why states were vulnerable more clearly than why each fell when it did⁠[[3]]⁠[[10]]. Invasion and migration. The oldest reading takes the Egyptian texts at their word: a coalition of peoples from the Aegean and Anatolia destroyed the cities of the Levant and attacked Egypt⁠[[2]]. Ancient DNA shows that some newcomers did settle at Ashkelon⁠[[8]]. Whether they were invaders who caused the collapse or refugees displaced by it is the open question; Kaniewski and colleagues treat the Sea Peoples as a proximate cause downstream of famine⁠[[5]]. Earthquakes. Nur and Cline found that nearly all destroyed sites lie in zones of strong shaking and suggested an "earthquake storm" in 1225–1175 BC, while calling the evidence inconclusive⁠[[18]]. Systems collapse. The synthesis most specialists now favour holds that several of these stresses struck tightly connected palace economies within a short period, and that the interdependence that had made the system rich made it fragile⁠[[1]]⁠[[3]]. Its strength is that it fits the diversity of the evidence; its weakness is that it is hard to test, because almost any combination of causes can be accommodated. ### Published claims **Published claims and their status** | Year | Who | Claimed | Status | Reason | |---|---|---|---|---| | 1936 | Ramesses III, Year 8 inscription (translated by Edgerton and Wilson)⁠[2] | A confederation of peoples from the islands overran Hatti, Cyprus and Syria before Egypt defeated it on land and at sea. | Disputed | Ancient DNA shows that some people did migrate, but Hattusa was emptied by its own rulers rather than sacked, and invasion as the principal cause has been largely abandoned⁠[8]⁠[7]. | | 1966 | Rhys Carpenter⁠[19] | A change of climate brought repeated drought and crop failure to southern Greece, which ended the Mycenaean palaces and drove their people away. | Disputed | Regional proxies do show drying around 1200 BC, but the stalagmite record near Pylos shows generally wetter conditions when the palace burned⁠[15]⁠[10]. | | 1982 | B. Weiss⁠[20] | Drought drove Luwian peoples out of western Anatolia early in the 12th century BC, and they were among the Sea Peoples who attacked Egypt. | Still possible | Drying around 1200 BC is now well attested and migration is shown at Ashkelon, but no study has tied a drought to the movement of particular peoples⁠[5]⁠[8]. | | 1993 | Robert Drews⁠[21] | Raiders fighting on foot with javelins and long swords defeated the chariot armies of the kingdoms; they caused the catastrophe rather than following it. | Disputed | Later reviews find the material evidence for attackers ambiguous at most sites and treat warfare as one stress among several⁠[3]. | | 2000 | Amos Nur and Eric H. Cline⁠[18] | Nearly all the destroyed sites lie in zones of strong shaking, and an earthquake storm in 1225–1175 BC may have destroyed many of them. | Still possible | No systematic archaeoseismic survey of the destruction layers has tested it, and the authors themselves call their evidence inconclusive⁠[18]. | | 2010 | David Kaniewski and colleagues⁠[9] | Pollen at Gibala shows drier conditions from the late 13th or early 12th century BC, and the first burning of Gibala was contemporary with the destruction of Ugarit. | Accepted | Pollen records from Cyprus and the Sea of Galilee show a dry phase at the same time⁠[5]⁠[6]. | | 2011 | David Kaniewski and colleagues⁠[4] | The terminal destruction of Gibala-Tell Tweini, and with it the collapse in the northern Levant, dates to 1192–1190 BC. | Accepted | The date rests on a stratified radiocarbon sequence tied to texts; whether other destructions cluster with it is the open question⁠[4]⁠[3]. | | 2012 | Brandon L. Drake⁠[15] | Cooler Mediterranean seas around the end of the Late Bronze Age reduced rainfall over the Aegean and the Levant. | Most likely | Later pollen reconstructions agree on a cool, dry period from about 3200 years ago, though some local records differ⁠[13]⁠[10]. | | 2013 | Dafna Langgut, Israel Finkelstein and Thomas Litt⁠[6] | The driest episode of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the southern Levant fell at about 1250–1100 BCE, followed by recovery in Iron Age I. | Accepted | It agrees with the pollen records from coastal Syria and Cyprus⁠[13]⁠[5]. | | 2013 | David Kaniewski and colleagues⁠[5] | Climate-driven famine was the ultimate cause of the crisis, and the Sea Peoples' invasions of Cyprus and Syria followed from it. | Still possible | Drought around 1200 BC is now well attested, but its timing varies by region and most specialists prefer several interacting causes to one first cause⁠[3]⁠[10]. | | 2014 | Eric H. Cline⁠[1] | A perfect storm of climate change, famine, earthquakes, invasion and the breakdown of trade brought down an interconnected system of states. | Accepted | The view most specialists now favour, though which stress came first is still argued⁠[3]⁠[7]. | | 2016 | A. Bernard Knapp and Sturt W. Manning⁠[3] | The changes came at different times from the mid 13th to the 12th century BC, and the evidence supports neither a single cause nor a precise trigger date. | Accepted | The standard critical review; later work on Gordion and Pylos adds detail without overturning it⁠[7]⁠[10]. | | 2017 | Martin Finné and colleagues⁠[10] | Near Pylos, conditions were generally wetter when the palace was destroyed, with a short dry spell about 3200 BP and drying only afterwards. | Accepted | A well-dated local record of 24 U-Th dates; how widely the pattern applies outside the Peloponnese is untested⁠[10]. | | 2019 | Michal Feldman and colleagues⁠[8] | European-related ancestry arrived at Ashkelon at the Bronze to Iron Age transition, showing a migration, and was diluted in later generations. | Accepted | Direct genetic evidence that people moved, though it does not show whether they were a cause of the collapse or a consequence⁠[8]. | | 2019 | David Kaniewski and colleagues⁠[13] | Coastal Syria had about 300 years of cooler, drier climate from about 3200 years ago, with winter rain down about 40%. | Most likely | The dry phase matches other Levantine records, but the size of the change rests on one pollen-based reconstruction⁠[6]⁠[9]. | | 2023 | Sturt W. Manning and colleagues⁠[7] | Three consecutive severe dry years about 1198–1196 BC in central Anatolia could have overwhelmed Hittite food storage and brought down the state. | Most likely | The drought is well dated and fits the abandonment of Hattusa, but a record 230 km away does not prove the cause⁠[7]⁠[17]. | | 2026 | Graham Hagens⁠[17] | Fifteen significant droughts over the 13th and 12th centuries, not a single episode, drove the long decline of the Hittite kingdom. | Still possible | A re-reading of the same Gordion data, published this year and not yet answered in print⁠[17]. | ## What would settle it More annually resolved and absolutely dated climate records from Greece, Cyprus and the Levant, of the Gordion kind, would show whether the 1198–1196 BC drought was regional or Anatolian. Radiocarbon sequences at the main destroyed sites, modelled together, would show whether the destructions cluster in a few years after the drought or spread across decades. Ancient DNA from more Iron Age sites would show how many people moved and from where. And a dated corpus of the grain and shortage texts would let the written evidence be placed against the climate record year by year. None of this is likely to name a single cause; it could show which stress came first. ## Questions 0 of 6 questions are answered. **Key questions** [All 6](https://mysteriesdept.com/questions/key-questions?mystery=bronze-age-collapse) **0** [Were the Sea Peoples a cause of the collapse or a consequence of it?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464NGG66KP/were-the-sea-peoples-a-cause-of-the-collapse-or-a) 0 of 0 sub-questions answered·0 Most likely: populations displaced by famine and the failure of their own states, moving with their families **0** [What was the principal cause of the end of the Late Bronze Age palace system in the eastern Mediterranean?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464MS26SDY/what-was-the-principal-cause-of-the-end-of-the-late-bronze) 0 of 3 sub-questions answered·0 Most likely: no single cause; several stresses (climate, famine, migration, war, earthquakes, internal unrest) struck… **0** [Why was Hattusa abandoned?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464N8P0FCE/why-was-hattusa-abandoned) 0 of 0 sub-questions answered·0 Most likely: the court moved away for political reasons, leaving the capital to decline ## Evidence 33 findings [What was the principal cause of the end of the Late Bronze Age palace system in the eastern Mediterranean?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464MS26SDY/what-was-the-principal-cause-of-the-end-of-the-late-bronze)13 findings [Drought and cooling, with extreme multi-year droughts, caused harvest failure and famine that the palace…](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464P7Y1K2G/drought-and-cooling-with-extreme-multi-year-droughts-caused)Most likely +[The Gordion tree rings show three consecutive severe dry years about 1198–1196 BC, shortly before the end of Hattusa.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464PFR4TJJ/the-gordion-tree-rings-show-three-consecutive-severe-dry)Supported +[Pollen in Cyprus, coastal Syria and the Sea of Galilee shows a dry phase spanning the collapse.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464PQJ6K2A/pollen-in-cyprus-coastal-syria-and-the-sea-of-galilee-shows)Supported +[Coastal Syria shows a 300-year cool, dry period from about 3200 years ago with winter rain down about 40%.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464PZC60MR/coastal-syria-shows-a-300-year-cool-dry-period-from-about)Supported −[Near Pylos the stalagmite record shows generally wetter conditions when the palace was destroyed.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464Q763D3A/near-pylos-the-stalagmite-record-shows-generally-wetter)Supported −[The changes occurred at different times from the mid 13th through the 12th century, and over-precise climate dates can mislead.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464QF07VSR/the-changes-occurred-at-different-times-from-the-mid-13th)Suggestive [Invading coalitions of seaborne peoples from the Aegean and Anatolia destroyed the cities and states.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464QPT66GA/invading-coalitions-of-seaborne-peoples-from-the-aegean-and)Disputed +[Ramesses III's Year 8 inscription names the confederation and says no land could stand before it.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464QYM04E0/ramesses-iiis-year-8-inscription-names-the-confederation-and)Suggestive +[Early Iron Age Ashkelon carried European-related ancestry not present before.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464R6E5HV4/early-iron-age-ashkelon-carried-european-related-ancestry)Supported −[Hattusa was emptied by its own administration and burned later, not destroyed by attack.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464RE86J28/hattusa-was-emptied-by-its-own-administration-and-burned)Supported [A sequence of major earthquakes destroyed the palaces and cities.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464RP26BGD/a-sequence-of-major-earthquakes-destroyed-the-palaces-and)Disputed +[Nearly all destroyed sites lie in 20th-century zones of strong shaking.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464RXW4B6B/nearly-all-destroyed-sites-lie-in-20th-century-zones-of)Suggestive −[The authors themselves call the evidence not conclusive.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464S5P65BP/the-authors-themselves-call-the-evidence-not-conclusive)Suggestive [No single cause; several stresses (climate, famine, migration, war, earthquakes, internal unrest) struck…](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464SDG4GN6/no-single-cause-several-stresses-climate-famine-migration)Most likely +[The evidence is diverse, and different regions changed at different times.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464SNA0Q5W/the-evidence-is-diverse-and-different-regions-changed-at)Supported +[Climate, migration and destruction are each independently attested around 1200 BC.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464SX45J7X/climate-migration-and-destruction-are-each-independently)Supported [Internal political and social conflict (dynastic struggle, revolt, the weakening of central authority)…](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464T4Y5K57/internal-political-and-social-conflict-dynastic-struggle)Most likely +[The Hittite state faced rivals, usurpers and breakaway regions throughout its history, and its capital was abandoned by its own rulers.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464TCR1648/the-hittite-state-faced-rivals-usurpers-and-breakaway)Suggestive [Were the destructions clustered in the years after the 1198–1196 BC drought, or spread over a century?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464N0W57P9/were-the-destructions-clustered-in-the-years-after-the)4 findings [Most destructions fall within a few decades after about 1200 BC.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464TWC4ECW/most-destructions-fall-within-a-few-decades-after-about-1200)Most likely +[Gibala-Tell Tweini is dated to 1192–1190 BC and is contemporary with Ugarit's destruction.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464V464Y26/gibala-tell-tweini-is-dated-to-11921190-bc-and-is)Supported +[Pylos was destroyed about 3150–3130 BP.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464VC05NEE/pylos-was-destroyed-about-31503130-bp)Suggestive [The destructions and abandonments are spread over a century or more, from the mid 13th to the 12th century.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464VKT04M4/the-destructions-and-abandonments-are-spread-over-a-century)Most likely +[The review places the changes at different times from the mid to late 13th through the 12th century.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464VVM3AFD/the-review-places-the-changes-at-different-times-from-the)Suggestive +[The Sea of Galilee dry phase begins about 1250 BCE, before the main destructions.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464W3E5QBR/the-sea-of-galilee-dry-phase-begins-about-1250-bce-before)Suggestive [Why was Hattusa abandoned?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464N8P0FCE/why-was-hattusa-abandoned)6 findings [Consecutive harvest failures in central Anatolia made the capital and its grain system unsustainable.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464WK22BKN/consecutive-harvest-failures-in-central-anatolia-made-the)Most likely +[Three consecutive severe dry years about 1198–1196 BC in the Gordion record, 230 km from Hattusa.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464WTW2GPD/three-consecutive-severe-dry-years-about-11981196-bc-in-the)Supported +[Fifteen significant droughts across the kingdom's last century suggest a cumulative decline.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464X2P04EZ/fifteen-significant-droughts-across-the-kingdoms-last)Suggestive −[Thirteenth-century texts on grain shortages lack detail and are read differently by different scholars.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464XAG5CSJ/thirteenth-century-texts-on-grain-shortages-lack-detail-and)Suggestive [Hattusa was sacked by enemies, local (the Kaska) or the Sea Peoples.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464XJA6N8E/hattusa-was-sacked-by-enemies-local-the-kaska-or-the-sea)Disputed +[Ramesses III lists Hatti among the lands that could not stand before the invaders.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464XT42PNQ/ramesses-iii-lists-hatti-among-the-lands-that-could-not)Speculative −[Investigations indicate the city was emptied by its administration and burned later.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464Y1Y6Y5Z/investigations-indicate-the-city-was-emptied-by-its)Supported [The court moved away for political reasons, leaving the capital to decline.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464Y9R7VSY/the-court-moved-away-for-political-reasons-leaving-the)Most likely +[Elements of the Hittite political system continued in the south-east and northern Syria, on a smaller scale.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464YHJ6T8F/elements-of-the-hittite-political-system-continued-in-the)Suggestive [Were the Sea Peoples a cause of the collapse or a consequence of it?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464NGG66KP/were-the-sea-peoples-a-cause-of-the-collapse-or-a)4 findings [Organised invaders who destroyed functioning states.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464Z163AB0/organised-invaders-who-destroyed-functioning-states)Disputed +[The Year 8 inscription describes a confederation that overran Hatti, Cyprus and Syria before reaching Egypt.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464Z906NGZ/the-year-8-inscription-describes-a-confederation-that)Suggestive [Populations displaced by famine and the failure of their own states, moving with their families.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D464ZGT4G84/populations-displaced-by-famine-and-the-failure-of-their-own)Most likely +[In Cyprus and Syria, climate-driven famine and the invasions are linked in one radiocarbon chronology.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D464ZRM3M28/in-cyprus-and-syria-climate-driven-famine-and-the-invasions)Suggestive +[European-related ancestry appears at Ashkelon in the early Iron Age and is diluted later, implying settlement and intermarriage.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D46500E6J9H/european-related-ancestry-appears-at-ashkelon-in-the-early)Supported [Raiders of limited reach, magnified by Egyptian royal propaganda.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D4650886JH4/raiders-of-limited-reach-magnified-by-egyptian-royal)Most likely +[Royal inscriptions are victory texts; the material evidence for the protagonists is ambiguous.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D4650G24TQA/royal-inscriptions-are-victory-texts-the-material-evidence)Suggestive [How severe and how widespread was the climate change around 1200 BC?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464NRA16TQ/how-severe-and-how-widespread-was-the-climate-change-around)4 findings [A regional shift to drier, cooler conditions lasting about three centuries.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D4650ZP6A2T/a-regional-shift-to-drier-cooler-conditions-lasting-about)Most likely +[Coastal Syria, Cyprus and the Sea of Galilee all record a dry phase.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D46517G233F/coastal-syria-cyprus-and-the-sea-of-galilee-all-record-a-dry)Supported [The decisive stress was short runs of extreme dry years, not the long trend.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D4651FA4A11/the-decisive-stress-was-short-runs-of-extreme-dry-years-not)Most likely +[Dry years occur regularly in the Gordion record; the run at 1198–1196 BC stands out.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D4651Q459MY/dry-years-occur-regularly-in-the-gordion-record-the-run-at)Supported −[A re-reading counts fifteen significant droughts over a century.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D4651YY1F7M/a-re-reading-counts-fifteen-significant-droughts-over-a)Suggestive [Climate change was regionally variable; some areas were not in drought when they collapsed.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D46526R0NKE/climate-change-was-regionally-variable-some-areas-were-not)Most likely +[Pylos was generally wetter at the destruction, with drying afterwards.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D4652EJ0C7H/pylos-was-generally-wetter-at-the-destruction-with-drying)Supported [Did an earthquake storm destroy many of the sites?](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/questions/QST0D464P040RGM/did-an-earthquake-storm-destroy-many-of-the-sites)2 findings [A sequence of major earthquakes in 1225–1175 BC destroyed many of the sites.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D4652Y661KD/a-sequence-of-major-earthquakes-in-12251175-bc-destroyed)Still possible +[Destroyed sites lie overwhelmingly in high-shaking zones.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D46536071WW/destroyed-sites-lie-overwhelmingly-in-high-shaking-zones)Suggestive [Earthquakes played at most a local role.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/answers/ANS0D4653DT2PN0/earthquakes-played-at-most-a-local-role)Most likely +[The proponents themselves describe the evidence as not conclusive.](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/evidence/EVD0D4653NM086E/the-proponents-themselves-describe-the-evidence-as-not)Suggestive ## Artifacts The films, photos, papers and objects this mystery rests on, each with its own key and its distance from the original. **Artifacts** [See all 15](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts) Photo1 step from object [The Year 8 inscription and Sea Peoples reliefs of Ramesses III](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4656V62KTW/the-year-8-inscription-and-sea-peoples-reliefs-of-ramesses) Oltau · CC BY-SA 4.0 Photo1 step from object [Linear B tablets from the Palace of Nestor, Pylos](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4657JM2S4R/linear-b-tablets-from-the-palace-of-nestor-pylos) Zde · CC BY-SA 4.0 Document1 step from object [Juniper timbers from Gordion, including the Midas Mound tumulus](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4657JM3RQM/juniper-timbers-from-gordion-including-the-midas-mound) P. I. Kuniholm and colleagues · public-domain Document1 step from object [The last letters from Ugarit](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4658A25EYG/the-last-letters-from-ugarit) Ras Shamra tablets; present holders (museums in Syria and elsewhere) not established in this pass Dataset2 steps from object [Human remains from Bronze and Iron Age burials at Ashkelon](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D4658HW7RA3/human-remains-from-bronze-and-iron-age-burials-at-ashkelon) Feldman et al. · CC BY-NC 4.0 Photo1 step from object [The terminal destruction layer at Gibala-Tell Tweini](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts/ART0D46591G2AQY/the-terminal-destruction-layer-at-gibala-tell-tweini) Kaniewski et al · CC BY (PLOS ONE's Creative Commons Attribution licence, 2011) [See all 15 artifacts](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/bronze-age-collapse/artifacts) ## See also [ **1908 Tunguska event** An explosion over the Siberian taiga in 1908 that flattened 2,150 km² of forest. ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/tunguska-event) [ **Younger Dryas impact hypothesis** A 2007 proposal that a comet exploded over North America and began the Younger Dryas. ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/younger-dryas-impact) [ **1979 Vela incident** A double flash seen by a US satellite over the South Atlantic in September 1979. ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/vela-incident) [ **Easter Island moai** Nearly a thousand stone figures carved on Rapa Nui and moved to coastal platforms. ](https://mysteriesdept.com/mysteries/easter-island-moai) ## References 1. 1.[Cline, E. 2021. 1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed (revised and updated edition). Princeton University Press.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464C7M25GF/1177-b-c-the-year-civilization-collapsed-revised-and-updated)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691208022)cited 5 times here**SRC** 0D464C7M25GF 1. 2.[Edgerton, W., Wilson, J. 1936. Historical Records of Ramses III: The Texts in Medinet Habu, Volumes I and II, translated with explanatory notes (SAOC 12). University of Chicago Press, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 12.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464CZ23GSB/historical-records-of-ramses-iii-the-texts-in-medinet-habu)cited 14 times here**SRC** 0D464CZ23GSB 1. 3.[Knapp, A., Manning, S. 2016. Crisis in context: the end of the Late Bronze Age in the eastern Mediterranean. American Journal of Archaeology 120(1), 99–149.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464BZT04YP/crisis-in-context-the-end-of-the-late-bronze-age-in-the)[doi](https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.120.1.0099)cited 11 times here**SRC** 0D464BZT04YP 1. 4.[Kaniewski, D., Van Campo, E., Van Lerberghe, K. et al. 2011. The Sea Peoples, from cuneiform tablets to carbon dating. PLOS ONE 6(6), e20232.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464A1A0V5G/the-sea-peoples-from-cuneiform-tablets-to-carbon-dating)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0020232)cited 7 times here**SRC** 0D464A1A0V5G 1. 5.[Kaniewski, D., Van Campo, E., Guiot, J. et al. 2013. Environmental roots of the Late Bronze Age crisis. PLOS ONE 8(8), e71004.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D4649SG2EN1/environmental-roots-of-the-late-bronze-age-crisis)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0071004)cited 6 times here**SRC** 0D4649SG2EN1 1. 6.[Langgut, D., Finkelstein, I., Litt, T. 2013. Climate and the Late Bronze collapse: new evidence from the southern Levant. Tel Aviv 40(2), 149–175.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464ARR7J8Z/climate-and-the-late-bronze-collapse-new-evidence-from-the)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1179/033443513X13753505864205)cited 4 times here**SRC** 0D464ARR7J8Z 1. 7.[Manning, S., Kocik, C., Lorentzen, B. et al. 2023. Severe multi-year drought coincident with Hittite collapse around 1198–1196 BC. Nature 614, 719–724.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D4649224SDR/severe-multi-year-drought-coincident-with-hittite-collapse)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-022-05693-y)cited 23 times here**SRC** 0D4649224SDR 1. 8.[Feldman, M., Master, D., Bianco, R. et al. 2019. Ancient DNA sheds light on the genetic origins of early Iron Age Philistines. Science Advances 5(7), eaax0061.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464CQ822HT/ancient-dna-sheds-light-on-the-genetic-origins-of-early-iron)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.aax0061)cited 7 times here**SRC** 0D464CQ822HT 1. 9.[Kaniewski, D., Paulissen, E., Van Campo, E. et al. 2010. Late second–early first millennium BC abrupt climate changes in coastal Syria and their possible significance for the history of the Eastern Mediterranean. Quaternary Research 74(2), 207–215.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464A941B06/late-secondearly-first-millennium-bc-abrupt-climate-changes)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yqres.2010.07.010)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464A941B06 1. 10.[Finné, M., Holmgren, K., Shen, C. et al. 2017. Late Bronze Age climate change and the destruction of the Mycenaean Palace of Nestor at Pylos. PLOS ONE 12(12), e0189447.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464B8C53SJ/late-bronze-age-climate-change-and-the-destruction-of-the)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0189447)cited 8 times here**SRC** 0D464B8C53SJ 1. 11.[Epigraphic Survey, O. 1930. Medinet Habu, Volume I: Earlier Historical Records of Ramses III (OIP 8). Oriental Institute Publications 8, University of Chicago Press.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464D6W28AE/medinet-habu-volume-i-earlier-historical-records-of-ramses)cited 2 times here**SRC** 0D464D6W28AE 1. 12.[Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Literatur Mainz, Universität Würzburg 2026. Hethitologie-Portal Mainz (HPM). hethport.uni-wuerzburg.de.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464DPG68XB/hethitologie-portal-mainz-hpm)cited 2 times here**SRC** 0D464DPG68XB 1. 13.[Kaniewski, D., Marriner, N., Cheddadi, R. et al. 2019. Cold and dry outbreaks in the eastern Mediterranean 3200 years ago. Geology 47(10), 933–937.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464AGY0Y9V/cold-and-dry-outbreaks-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-3200)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1130/G46491.1)cited 6 times here**SRC** 0D464AGY0Y9V 1. 14.[Bar-Matthews, M., Ayalon, A. 2011. Mid-Holocene climate variations revealed by high-resolution speleothem records from Soreq Cave, Israel and their correlation with cultural changes. The Holocene 21(1), 163–171.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464BG61XD4/mid-holocene-climate-variations-revealed-by-high-resolution)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683610384165)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464BG61XD4 1. 15.[Drake, B. 2012. The influence of climatic change on the Late Bronze Age collapse and the Greek Dark Ages. Journal of Archaeological Science 39(6), 1862–1870.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464B0J0QTR/the-influence-of-climatic-change-on-the-late-bronze-age)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2012.01.029)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464B0J0QTR 1. 16.[Manning, S., Kromer, B., Bronk Ramsey, C. et al. 2010. 14C record and wiggle-match placement for the Anatolian (Gordion area) juniper tree-ring chronology ~1729 to 751 cal BC, and typical Aegean/Anatolian (growing season related) regional 14C offset assessment. Radiocarbon 52(4), 1571–1597.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D46499W6GC1/14c-record-and-wiggle-match-placement-for-the-anatolian)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033822200056320)cited 2 times here**SRC** 0D46499W6GC1 1. 17.[Hagens, G. 2026. Fifteen significant droughts: radiocarbon dating and the last years of the Hittite kingdom (version 2). Ägypten und Levante 35, 201–212.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464DEP43YA/fifteen-significant-droughts-radiocarbon-dating-and-the-last)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1553/aeundl35s201)cited 3 times here**SRC** 0D464DEP43YA 1. 18.[Nur, A., Cline, E. 2000. Poseidon's horses: plate tectonics and earthquake storms in the Late Bronze Age Aegean and eastern Mediterranean. Journal of Archaeological Science 27(1), 43–63.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464CFE56RK/poseidons-horses-plate-tectonics-and-earthquake-storms-in)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1006/jasc.1999.0431)cited 9 times here**SRC** 0D464CFE56RK 1. 19.[Carpenter, R. 1966. Discontinuity in Greek Civilization. Cambridge University Press.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464ENR2XRD/discontinuity-in-greek-civilization)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464ENR2XRD 1. 20.[Weiss, B. 1982. The decline of Late Bronze Age civilization as a possible response to climatic change. Climatic Change 4(2), 173–198.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464EXJ2EHD/the-decline-of-late-bronze-age-civilization-as-a-possible)[doi](https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02423389)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464EXJ2EHD 1. 21.[Drews, R. 1993. The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 B.C.. Princeton University Press.](https://mysteriesdept.com/sources/SRC0D464F5C25Y4/the-end-of-the-bronze-age-changes-in-warfare-and-the)cited 1 time here**SRC** 0D464F5C25Y4 Last edited 27 Oct 2026